No longer a world power, the Netherlands now invested its profits in possessions such as beautiful houses. In the eighteenth century, the interior became a focus of keen interest. The period was characterized by the refinement and cultivation of good taste.
These were manifested particularly in the interior domain, with virtuosic arts and crafts objects and personal portraits. Room from an Amsterdam canal house Beuning room.
Our online collection contains many photographs of the Rijksmuseum throughout the years. This link shows, for instance, what the European court art gallery used to look like. Three piece suits also ruled the male fashion scene, containing a jacket, vest, and pants as the essentials. With these suits, men wore black leather shoes with stockings underneath. Coats appeared as longer waist coats with the rich showing off many different features while the working class displayed much simpler details.
When outdoors, a gentleman wore cloaks, which later became highly unfashionable. Below all of this, a man wore breaches. Dating and Social Interactions Dating life for women in the 18th century had started to change as they had more of a say in their marriages and weddings.
It was at this time the idea of marrying because of who your parents arranged had died, and the idea of marrying on the basis of personal affection and started taking its place. The average age women had started to marry was 22 compared to decades before when the age was much younger. The husband also needed to not only pay a dowry to the brides family, but have an allotment of things lined up for the happy couple. Things such as: housing, clothing, prospect of decent income and savings.
On average, men tended to marry at 26 during this time, looking for specific attributes in a woman to be considered as his future wife. These qualities included: the typical household wife of maid, mother and caregiver, as well as a youthful looking woman who was wise with a decent holy background. Entertainment Sports. The English were an outdoors people when it came to sport. Ice skating in winter months was extremely common, and during the summer months, swimming and water sports reigned supreme.
Boating for the purpose of fishing, picnicking, and watching regattas was all very popular. During fall months, hunting took a big role in many lives where the main game was dear and certain birds.
Horse races have been documented since until the Jockey Club was officially founded in Many denounced the racing due to it being a distraction to labor that needed to be done, but the protest had little to no effect. Leaning towards the middle of the century, cricket started gaining increasing popularity due to its viability with both men and women of all classes.
Along with cricket, other organized sports included tennis, golf, and lawn bowling. Plays Almost everyone enjoyed the theater whether it be watching it in the city, travelling companies, or performing in their own home. It was a scathing social satire that included the poor and alienated the rich. With the increase in theater popularity, many theaters renovated and put on multiple shows. The audiences were various and a lot of the time were rude to the point where they would throw produce at the actors if they were unhappy with what they had seen.
Other Entertainment Art shows were another source of pleasure for various people of all ages. Wax figures, sculptures, and paintings were all popular. Public fairs were immensely popular, ranging anywhere from two to six weeks. Fireworks, music, plays, animal fights, eating competitions, and gambling could all be found at various fairs.
Assemblies and balls offered young people an opportunity for courtship. The price of admission sorted out the very poor and distinguished the rest by their respective social class. Women loved the aspect of dancing and gossiping about the men in attendance and the mothers enjoyed the matchmaking idea of it all.
Clubs and societies offered mostly men a place to meet others with common interests. Coffeehouses saw some of the greatest thinkers of the 18th century gather and discuss everything from sports to philosophy.
The Freemasons were founded in and included most of the male royals by the end of the century. Gambling and card games became other large sources of entertainment for the public. It was very common to bet on various sporting events where huge sums of money were sometimes gambled away in one sitting.
The government did not want to penalize its own members who gambled so it made life difficult on working class game house owners. Whether or not they were gambled on, games were played by everyone. The most notable of them being backgammon, chess, checkers, and cribbage.
Some of the more violent forms of entertainment came in the form of animal torture and fighting where many gathered around to see the carnage that ensued.
Fighting between humans were considered all in good fun including the emergence of boxing and wrestling.
Alcohol also became popular during this time with the liquor of choice being gin. It was cheap and easy to make, and you did not need a license to sell it, making it a hot commodity during this time. The downside to bottom shelf liquor was the affects it had on your health. Many people suffered greatly from the overabundance of gin, but for many poor people it had become almost a comfort to them. People of upper class generally never bothered with things like homemade gin, due to the fact that they could afford better quality liquor.
Literary References : No citations in body of page. Victoria and Albert Museum, Olsen, Kirstin. Daily Life in 18th-century England. Westport, CT: Greenwood, Lambert, Tim. Lehmberg, Stanford E. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub. British Library Board, n. Web 02 Dec. Plymouth Ancestors, n.
Media References. Diniejko, Andrzej, and D. Sarudy, Barbara Wells. Family Life The family lives of people were separated by two distinctions: roles for men versus roles for women, and social class. Role of Women and Men Women had to take on various roles in the household during the 17th and 18th centuries. They were responsible for running the household, and for more affluent families, managing the servants.
Women, or mothers, were also responsible for raising and educating their children. A border incident at Balta, in the southern Ukraine, sparks a war between Russia and Turkey that will last six years. Captain Cook observes in Tahiti the transit of Venus, the primary purpose of his voyage to the Pacific.
Captain Cook reaches New Zealand and sets off to chart its entire coastline. French inventor Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot successfully tests a steam wagon, probably the first working mechanical vehicle. The triangular trade, controlled from Liverpool, ships millions of Africans across the Atlantic as slaves.
British troops fire into an unruly crowd in Boston, Massachusetts, killing five. Go to Chatterton, Thomas —70 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Captain Cook reaches the mainland of Australia, at a place which he names Botany Bay, and continues up the eastern coast. In response to American protests, the British government removes the Townshend duties on all commodities with the exception of tea. English entrepreneur Richard Arkwright adds water power to spinning by means of the water frame.
Richard Arkwright pioneers the factory environment with his cotton mill at Cromford in Derbyshire. Russia, Prussia and Austria agree a treaty enabling them to divide the spoils in the first partition of Poland. The first partition of Poland begins the process of Lithuania being progressively absorbed into Russia.
English prison reformer John Howard is shocked into action by the conditions he sees in Bedford gaol. The London brokers who meet to do business in Jonathan's coffee house decide to call themselves the Stock Exchange. Go to stock exchange in A Dictionary of Finance and Banking 4 rev ed. Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele isolates oxygen but does not immediately publish his achievement. Samuel Johnson and James Boswell undertake a journey together to the western islands of Scotland.
Some fifty colonists, disguised as Indians, tip a valuable cargo of tea into Boston harbour as a protest against British tax. Britain's new Coercive or Intolerable Acts include the requirement that Massachusetts citizens give board and lodging to British troops.
Illiterate visionary Ann Lee, leader of an English sect, the 'Shaking Quakers', crosses the Atlantic to spread the word. English chemist Joseph Priestley isolates oxygen, but he believes it to be 'dephlogisticated air'.
Delegates from twelve American colonies meet in Philadelphia and agree not to import any goods from Britain. Thomas Gainsborough moves from Bath to set up a studio in London. Dutch nomads, pressing far north from Cape Town, become known as the Trekboers.
Go to Afrikaner in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Pioneer Daniel Boone and other backwoodsmen cut the road west that will bring settlers to Kentucky. Go to Boone, Daniel c. Patrick Henry makes a stirring declaration — 'Give me liberty or give me death' — to the Virginia Assembly. Go to Henry, Patrick —99 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. John Singleton Copley, already established as America's greatest portrait painter, moves to London. Go to Copley, John Singleton ? General Gage sends a detachment of British troops to seize weapons held by American Patriots at Concord.
Paul Revere is one of the US riders taking an urgent warning to Concord, but he is captured on the journey. The first shot of the American Revolution is fired in a skirmish between redcoats and militiamen at Lexington, on the road to Concord.
Delegates from the states reassemble in Philadelphia, with hostilities against the British already under way in Massachusetts. Delegates in Philadelphia select George Washington as commander-in-chief of the colonial army. At Bunker Hill, overlooking Boston from the north, the American militiamen prove their worth against British professional soldiers. Britain declares the colonies to be in a state of rebellion, and sets up a naval blockade of the American coastline.
Go to American Revolution in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Yankee Doodle is the most popular song with the patriot troops in the American Revolution.
Figaro makes his first appearance on stage in Beaumarchais' The Barber of Seville. Talleyrand begins an extremely varied career by becoming an abbot at the age of twenty-one. Captain Cook publishes his discovery of a preventive cure against scurvy, in the form of a regular ration of lemon juice. Francisco de Goya begins a series of designs for tapestries to be made in Spain's Royal Tapestry Factory.
George Washington raises on Prospect Hill a new American flag, the British red ensign on a ground of thirteen stripes — one for each colony. In Common Sense , an anonymous pamphlet, English immigrant Thomas Paine is the first to argue that the American colonies should be independent. Two Boulton and Watt engines are installed, the first of many in the mines and mills of England's developing industrial revolution. The revolutionary convention of Virginia votes for independence from Britain, and instructs its delegates in Philadelphia to propose this motion.
Virginia's motion for independence from Britain is passed at the Continental Congress of the colonies with no opposing vote. Thomas Jefferson's text for the Declaration of Independence is accepted by the Congress in Philadelphia.
John Hancock is the first delegate to sign the Declaration of Independence, formally written out on a large sheet of parchment.
Scottish economist Adam Smith analyzes the nature and causes of the Wealth of Nations. Go to Smith, Adam —90 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. George Washington defeats the British at Trenton at a psychologically important moment in the course of the war.
Congress adopts a new flag for independent America — the stars and stripes. George Washington, heavily defeated in a battle at Brandywine, is forced to relinquish Philadelphia to the British.
The US Congress agrees the final version of the Articles of Confederation, defining the terms on which states join the Union. Go to Articles of Confederation in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. France, joining the American colonies in their fight against Britain, sends a large fleet across the Atlantic. In Brook Watson and the Shark John Singleton Copley creates the most intensely dramatic of his modern history paintings. The British rapidly abandon Philadelphia on news of the expected arrival of a French fleet.
The British adopt a new policy in the south, landing in Georgia and capturing much of South Carolina. British explorer Captain James Cook is killed in a skirmish with natives in Hawaii over a stolen boat. Joseph Banks tells a committee of the House of Commons that the east coast of Australia is suitable for the transportation of convicted felons. The world's first iron bridge is assembled in a few months across the Severn at Coalbrookdale.
Samuel Crompton perfects the mule, a machine for spinning that combines the merits of Hargreave's jenny and Arkwright's water frame. Go to Crompton, Samuel — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. The year-old Napoleon is admitted as a student in a military college at Brienne, near Troyes. Serapis near England's Flamborough Head.
Go to Inca noun in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed. Six days of riot in London are triggered by Lord George Gordon leading a march to oppose any degree of Catholic emancipation. Japanese artist Kitagawa Utamaro is a master of colour woodcuts, often depicting the courtesan district of Edo. Go to Utamaro, Kitagawa — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Maryland, ratifies the Articles of Confederation the last state to do so , completing 'the Confederation of the United States'.
William Herschel discovers Uranus, the first planet to be found by means of a telescope, and names it the Georgian star. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, now 25, leaves Salzburg to settle in Vienna. The Bank of North America is established by the Continental Congress to lend money to the fledgling Revolutionary government.
Go to Kant, Immanuel — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Ann Lee leads her Shaker colleagues in a missionary tour of New England lasting two years. The reforming emperor Joseph II emancipates the serfs in the Habsburg territories. The British general Charles Cornwallis, isolated at Yorktown, is forced to surrender in the final engagement of the Revolutionary War.
Italian sculptor Antonio Canova sets up his studio in Rome and begins producing finely modelled nudes in the Greek style. Go to Canova, Antonio — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Friedrich von Schiller's youthful and anarchic play The Robbers causes a sensation when performed in Mannheim.
The English actress Sarah Siddons, already well known in the province, causes a sensation when she appears in London at Drury Lane.
Go to Beethoven, Ludwig van — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. French paper manufacturer Joseph Montgolfier sends a hot-air balloon feet m into the air, in front of a crowd in Annonay. US lexicographer Noah Webster publishes a Spelling Book for American children that eventually will sell more than 60 million copies.
Ten days after the first human ascent in a hot-air balloon the feat is repeated, again in Paris, in a version lifted by hydrogen. Louis XVI watches through his telescope the first balloon flight with living passengers — a sheep, a cock and a duck. Jacques-Louis David, establishing a reputation with his severe classical paintings, is elected to the French academy.
Go to David, Jacques-Louis 30 Aug. Benjamin Franklin, irritated at needing two pairs of spectacles, commissions from a lens-grinder the first bifocals. English ironmaster Henry Cort patents a process for puddling iron which produces a pure and malleable metal. The first mail coach leaves Bristol for London, introducing a new era of faster transport.
Mozart and his friends perform for Haydn the Mozart quartets inspired by Haydn's 'Russian' quartets op. The French queen Marie Antoinette is wrongly implicated in a scandal involving a diamond necklace. French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb begins publishing his discoveries in the field of electricity and magnetism.
James Hutton describes to the Royal Society of Edinburgh his studies of local rocks , launching the era of scientific geology. William Withering's Account of the Foxglove describes the use of digitalis for dropsy, and its possible application to heart disease. Napoleon graduates from his military college and is commissioned in an artillery regiment.
Go to Houdon, Jean-Antoine 25 Mar. Mozart's Marriage of Figaro premieres in Vienna and then has a huge success in Prague. US author Philip Freneau publishes his first collection of poems, dating back to Daniel Shays is the most prominent figure in a violent protest movement by farmers against the government of Massachusetts.
French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier publishes a system for classifying and naming chemical substances. The Continental Congress passes the Northwest Ordinance, a plan for the establishment of new states north and west of the Ohio river. The French finance minister, Charles Alexandre de Calonne, is dismissed when his proposed reforms meet aristocratic opposition.
Go to quakers in A Dictionary of British History 1 rev ed. The First Fleet eleven ships carrying about convicts leaves Portsmouth for Australia. A British ship lands a party of freed slaves as the first modern settlers in Sierra Leone, on the west coast of Africa. Scottish engineer James Watt devises the governor, the first example of industrial automation.
Delegates meeting in Philadelphia agree a final draft for a US constitution, to be submitted to the states for ratification. Mozart's opera Don Giovanni has its premiere in Prague. Arthur Phillip, selecting a suitable coastal site for the first penal colony in Australia, names the place Sydney Cove. The constitution of the United States is ratified by the states, but it is immediately agreed that amendments will be desirable.
Tiradentes the 'puller of teeth' leads the first rebellion against Portuguese rule in Brazil. The ministers of Louis XVI reluctantly announce that the estates general will meet in , for the first time since Spain's affairs are controlled by Manuel de Godoy, lover of the queen, Maria Luisa.
Go to pugilist noun in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed. Alexander Hamilton becomes secretary of the treasury in the administration of George Washington, whose federalist views he shares. William Blake publishes Songs of Innocence , a volume of his poems with every page etched and illustrated by himself. In his Principles Jeremy Bentham defines 'utility' as that which enhances pleasure and reduces pain.
A left-wing political club begins to meet in a Jacobin convent in Paris, thus becoming known as the Jacobins. The autobiography of Olaudah Equiano, a slave captured as a child in Africa, becomes a best-seller on both sides of the Atlantic. Go to Equiano, Olaudah [Gustavas Vassa] ? Go to Mackenzie, Sir Alexander c. Delegates of the Third Estate swear an oath in a tennis court at Versailles, pledging themselves not to disperse until France has a constitution.
The painter Jacques-Louis David sketches the events in the Versailles tennis court. An excited Paris mob liberates the seven prisoners held in the forbidding fortress of the Bastille. Go to Bastille in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Go to Dunlap, William 19 Feb. Parisians force their way into the palace at Versailles and insist on Louis XVI and his royal family accompanying them back to Paris. French doctor Joseph-Ignace Guillotin proposes a decapitation machine as a more humane form of capital punishment.
Go to guillotine in A Dictionary of World History 2 ed. Go to Christian, Fletcher c. A second great revivalist movement sweeps northeast America, inspired by the earlier example of Jonathan Edwards. A second fleet arrives in Sydney, bringing more convicts and a regiment, the New South Wales Corps, to keep order. The Potomac is chosen as the navigable river on which the new US capital city will be sited. Go to Potomac in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed.
The USA becomes the first nation to establish a regular census as a systematic check on the size of the population. Go to census in A Dictionary of Public Health 1 ed. Anglo-Irish politician Edmund Burke publishes Reflections on the Revolution in France , a blistering attack on recent events across the Channel. Go to Burke, Edmund —97 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.
English painter J. Turner is only 15 when a painting of his, a watercolour, is first exhibited at the Royal Academy. Scottish poet Robert Burns publishes Tam o' Shanter , in which a drunken farmer has an alarming encounter with witches. French inventor Claude Chappe develops a hilltop signalling system, for which he coins the words telegraph and semaphore.
A stranger arrives in Vienna with a mysterious commission for Mozart to write a requiem mass, just months before the composer's death. Go to requiem in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Stationed at Valence, Napoleon becomes president of the local Jacobin club and makes radical speeches against the nobility and clergy.
An Indian raid on an American military camp beside the Maumee river leaves more than US soldiers dead. The Ordnance Survey is founded in Britain, to make detailed maps of the country for military purposes.
Naval officer George Vancouver sails from Britain on the voyage which will bring him to the northwest coast of America. Mozart's opera The Magic Flute has its premiere in Vienna in a popular theatre run by the librettist, Emanuel Shikaneder.
Mozart dies, at the age of just 35, leaving his Requiem unfinished. The first ten amendments to the US Constitution, collectively known as the Bill of Rights, are ratified by the states. Go to Bill of Rights in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.
France declares war on the Austrian emperor, an event that plunges Europe into more than 20 years of conflict. In a first demonstration of the guillotine, a highwayman is beheaded in a Paris square. Go to guillotine in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. A French officer, Rouget de Lisle, writes a stirring anthem for France, soon to be known as the Marseillaise.
George Washington is unanimously elected for a second term as president of the USA. The Brazilian rebel Tiradentes is beheaded in public in Rio de Janeiro as a warning to would-be revolutionaries.
Charlotte Square in Edinburgh begins to be built to the design of Robert Adam. Go to Adam, Robert —92 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Thomas Paine moves hurriedly to France, to escape a charge of treason in England for opinions expressed in his Rights of Man.
A French revolutionary army defeats the Austrians and Prussians at Valmy, and thus saves Paris from attack. After their success at Valmy, French republican armies overrun much of the Austrian Netherlands. During four September days, thugs are encouraged to massacre some aristocrats and priests held in Paris prisons.
Alexander Mackenzie reaches the Pacific coast of Canada, becoming the first known person to cross the north American continent. The National Convention abolishes royalty in France and establishes the first republic. Beethoven leaves Bonn and goes to Vienna to study composition with Haydn. Louis XVI is guillotined after a majority of just one in the national Convention has voted for death without delay. Britain joins other European nations in war against France, mainly in naval engagements in the West Indies and Atlantic.
Russia and Prussia agree on a second partition of Poland. Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin, enormously speeding up the process of separating cotton fibres from the seeds. Go to cotton gin in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. George Washington lays the cornerstone for the Congress building on Capitol Hill. France becomes the first nation to attempt national conscription, calling up bachelors between the ages of eighteen and twenty-five.
The US Congress passes Fugitive Slave Laws, enabling southern slave owners to reclaim escaped slaves in northern states. The French Convention adopts imaginative names for the months in their new republican calendar. The Terror begins in republican France, with executions rising to more than in December. Go to Paine, Thomas — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Napoleon's soldiers capture Toulon and his artillery fire forces the Anglo-Spanish fleet to withdraw from the harbour.
Go to Napoleon I — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Robespierre and St Just succeed in sending Danton and his faction to the guillotine in April. Goethe and Schiller become friends, and together create the movement known as Weimar classicism. Robespierre and his faction go to the guillotine in July, in the final bloodletting of the Terror. George Washington uses military force to assert government authority on rebels in Pennsylvania refusing to pay a federal tax on whisky.
Virtuoso violinist Nicolo Paganini gives his first public performances, in churches in his native Genoa. Dutch Boers begin calling themselves Afrikaners, to emphasize that Africa is their native land.
Beethoven makes his first public appearance in Vienna as a pianist, playing either his first or second piano concerto. Mungo Park sets off on his first expedition to explore the Niger on behalf of the African Association. Go to Park, Mungo — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.
Two extra stars are added to the American flag for Vermont and Kentucky, two new states that have joined since the original union of thirteen.
The Netherlands, forced by invasion into the French camp, is transformed into the Batavian republic. Thomas Paine publishes his completed Age of Reason , an attack on conventional Christianity.
After the Fort Greenville concessions, the Shawnee leader Tecumseh emerges as a champion of Indian territorial rights. Go to Tecumseh c. A secret Protestant group, the Orange Society, is formed in Co. Armagh to resist Irish nationalism.
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